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In the late 1800s, Sigmund Freud rocked the scientific community by proposing a theory of psychology that had a foundation in sexuality. To the Victorian culture, Freud’s theory was shocking. Not only was sexuality a motivating force for adults, Freud proposed that it was the driving force of human behavior regardless of age, from the smallest
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Let’s start by asking why psychology needs to be integrated with evolutionary biology.
Whereas changes have been taking place in evolutionary biology since Darwin’s 1859 book, psychology proceeded along a different path. Sigmund Freud, whose contributions came a few decades a er Darwin’s, was significantly influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection. So was William James. In the 1920s, however, psychology took a sharp turn away from evolutionary theory and embraced a radical behaviorism that reigned for half a century. Then important empirical discoveries made radical behaviorism untenable, encouraging a turn back to evolutionary theory.
According to conventional wisdom in the social sciences, “love” is a relatively recent invention, introduced a few hundred years ago by romantic European poets (Jankowiak, 1995). Research suggests that this conventional wisdom is radically wrong. There is evidence that loving thoughts, emotions, and actions are experienced by people in cultures worldwide—from the Zulu in the southern tip of Africa to the Inuit in the cold northern ice caps of Alaska. In a survey of 168 diverse cultures around the world, anthropologists William Jankowiak and Edward Fischer examined four sources of evidence for the presence of love: the singing of love songs, elopement by lovers against the wishes of parents, cultural informants reporting personal anguish and longing for a loved one, and folklore depicting romantic entanglements. They found evidence for romantic love in 88.5 percent of the cultures (Jankowiak, 1995; Jankowiak & Fischer, 1992). Clearly love is not a phenomenon limited to the United States or to Western cultures.
Researchers have made progress in identifying the underlying brain mechanisms involved in love (Bartels & Zeki, 2004; Fisher, Aron, & Brown, 2005). Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) technology, researchers scanned the brains of individuals who were intensely in love while they thought about their loved one. The specific areas of the brain that “lit up” (showed an increased blood flow, indicating changes in neural activity) centered on the caudate nucleus and the ventral tegmental areas. These areas contain cells that produce dopamine, which stimulates the reward centers of the brain, analogous to experiencing a “rush” of cocaine (Fisher, 2006). Thus, researchers are beginning to make progress in identifying the underlying brain circuits involved in the psychological state of love.
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The hormone testosterone (T) plays a key role in male mating effort, the time and energy devoted to pursuing mates and besting same-sex competitors (Ellison, 2001). Higher T levels facilitate male pursuit of females, and T levels increase a er interacting with an attractive woman (Roney, Mahler, & Maestripieri, 2003). Maintaining high levels of T, though, can be costly for men. T can compromise immune functioning, and because it is linked with mating effort, it may interfere with parenting effort (it’s difficult for a man to be a good parent if he’s always pursuing other women). Consequently, evolutionists have hypothesized that T levels should drop a er a man succeeds in attracting a long-term mate, and studies have found precisely that effect (Burnham et al., 2003; Gray et al., 2004). One study found that men in committed relationships had 21 percent lower T levels than unpaired men (see Figure 5.6). Another found that men in long-term relationships (more than 12 months) had substantially lower T levels than single men or men in newly formed relationships (less than 12 months) (Farrelly, Owens, Elliott, Walden, & Wetherell, 2015). Married men who had children had even lower levels of T.