Mertcan Bulak
@MBulak
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Ağustos 2020 tarihinde katıldı
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The Pilgrims landed in 1620, and ten years later the Massachusetts Bay Company began attracting thousands of frustrated Puritans to Boston and its surrounding towns. Between 1629 and 1642 some twenty-five thousand Puritans migrated to New England. Other than in Virginia, the English authorities made no attempt to impose religious uniformity in the New World.
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The terms of peace, called the Peace of Westphalia (1648), reflect the passing of an age. Calvinism joined Lutheranism and Catholicism as a recognized expression of the Christian faith. Princes, if they chose, could, for the first time, allow Protestants and Catholics to coexist within their territories. And the pope was excluded from any interference in the religious affairs of Germany. Naturally Pope Innocent X condemned the treaty, but both Catholics and Protestants ignored his protests.
Imperial control of the southern shores of the Baltic and deep religious convictions compelled the able Lutheran warrior King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden to enter Germany as the new leader of the Protestant cause. A series of smashing victories carried him south as far as Munich. The Lion of the North, Protestants called him, but even regal courage meets its end. At the Battle of Lutzen (1632), southwest of Leipzig, the Swedish army was again victorious, but Adolphus was cut down in combat. Without Adolphus the war wore on, but the outcome was already clear. The Catholic forces could not subdue the Protestants in northern Germany and the Protestants could not defeat the Catholics in the south.
A zealous supporter of the Counter-Reformation, Jesuit-educated Ferdinand II was named the king of Bohemia only shortly before he was also elected Holy Roman Emperor. Moving under the concept of one religion for one realm, Ferdinand attempted to uproot Protestantism from Bohemia and impose Catholicism on his subjects. The Bohemian nobles, mostly Protestants, rose in revolt and offered their crown to Frederick V, the ardent Calvinist ruler of the Palatinate, one of the major German territories. Frederick’s acceptance touched off the fighting between Catholics and Calvinists.
One of the glaring weaknesses of the Peace of Augsburg (1555) was that it ignored the Calvinists. Given their sense of holy mission, it was merely a matter of time before hostilities erupted anew. Preparations for war were laid early in the seventeenth century when Protestants formed a league of German princes and Catholics created a similar Catholic League. Fighting broke out in 1618.