Stuart Sim

Psychoanalysis does indeed owe much to literature.

Sigmund Freud’s central dogma of the “Oedipus Complex” derives from Oedipus Rex by the Greek dramatist

Sophokles (c. 496–406 BC). Psychoanalytic criticism often falls back on the analysis of fictional characterization. And Freud’s classic case-studies, Little Hans, Dora, The Rat Man etc., whatever value they may have as “science”, are certainly great examples of story-telling.

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The Death of the Author by Roland Barthes

In a notorious essay of 1968, he even proclaimed the “death of the author”. He meant the traditional, heroic “Author” passing on his words of wisdom to a grateful, and essentially passive, public. This has been a contentious idea. Yet, in its most basic sense, it means no more than that narratives take on a life of their own after they leave the author and pass into general circulation.

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Readerly vs. Writerly Texts

Roland Barthes suggests in

S/Z (1970) that narratives can be divided into “readerly” and “writerly” categories. The latter demands the active participation of the reader; the former an attitude of passivity. Modernist novels, and indeed anything at all experimental in form – such as the novel Tristram Shandy (1759–67) by Laurence Sterne (1713–68) – are “writerly”. Most 19th-century realist novels are “readerly”.

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Eco's Labyrinth

Umberto Eco (b. 1932) offers another semiotic view of intertextuality. One of the characters in his novel

Gülün Adı (1980) remarks that: “A book is made up of signs that speak of other signs.”

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The Structuralist Marxism of Althusser

Ideology is therefore disseminated by what

Louis Althusser calls the “Ideological State Apparatuses” (institutions such as the legal system, the educational system and the media) and maintained by the “Repressive State Apparatus” (the police and army). Following on from

Antonio Gramsci’s “hegemony” theory, Althusser also believed that ideology worked most effectively at the level of ideas – as enshrined in the Ideological State Apparatuses. The duty of the cultural critic is to identify where, and how, these ideas serve the cause of the ruling élite – as well as to identify the contradictions that reveal the gaps and flaws in the ideology in question.

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Jean François Lyotard’s

Postmodern Durum (1979) might be regarded as the bible of postmodernism as a critical theory.

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