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At one time, it was assumed that children had some basic inbuilt spatial concepts such as up versus down, in versus out, front versus back, and so on. But this is turning out to be unlikely. Instead, children quickly learn about the spatial categories adopted by their own language.
Sometimes two items are intentionally blended together in order to create a new word. Lewis Carroll makes Humpty Dumpty explain in Alice Through the Looking Glass that SLITHY means ‘lithe and slimy’, commenting, ‘You see, it’s like a portmanteau – there are two meanings packed up into one word’ – though Lewis Carroll’s made-up words may not be as intentional as they appear. Apparently, he suffered from severe migraine attacks, and many of his strange neologisms are uncannily like the kind of temporary aphasia produced by some migraine sufferers.
Perhaps better examples of intentional blends are SMOG from ‘smoke and fog’, and BRUNCH from ‘breakfast and lunch’. Occasional parallels of this type can be spotted between slips of the tongue and language change.
Meanwhile, repetitions are relatively unusual among normal people, because they mostly have a very effective ‘wipe the slate clean’ mechanism. As soon as they have uttered a word, the phonetic form no longer remains to clutter up the mind. But aphasics, often to their frustration and despair, keep repeating sounds and words from the sentence before.
Aphasia is rather different from slips of the tongue, in that it is far from ‘normal’. The name aphasia comes from a Greek word which means literally ‘without speech’, though is widely used in both the UK and USA to mean ‘impaired speech’.
Aphasia covers an enormous range of speech problems. At one end of the range we find people who can only say a single word such as O DEAR, O DEAR, O DEAR, or more usually, a swear word such as DAMN, DAMN, DAMN. One unproved theory is that people who have had a severe stroke sometimes find their speech ‘petrified’ into the word they were uttering as the stroke occurred. At the other end of the scale are people with only occasional wordfinding difficulties – it is not always clear where true aphasia ends and normal slips of the tongue begin.
Hesitation pauses are more promising. There are more of them and they do not have any obvious physical purpose comparable to that of filling one’s lungs with air. Normally they account for one-third to one-half of the time taken up in talking. Speech in which such pausing does not occur is sometimes referred to as ‘inferior’ speech. Either it has been rehearsed beforehand, or the speaker is merely stringing together a number of standard phrases she habitually repeats.
Unfortunately, we tend to over-value fluent, glib speakers who may not be thinking what they are saying, and often condemn a hesitant or stammering speaker who may be thinking very hard.
We all know how difficult it is to hear the exact sounds of a foreign word. This is because we are so busy imposing on it what we expect to hear, in terms of our own language habits, that we fail to notice certain novel features.
It is well known that children tend to omit or confuse the first syllable of a word, particularly if it is unstressed, as in RITTACK, RIDUCTOR, RIFECTION for ‘attack’, ‘conductor’, ‘infection’. But this is not only because the syllable is unstressed. It is also because the syllable occurs at the beginning of the word.
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Adults can, however, help their children by talking about things that interest them, and engaging in joint enterprises: ‘Now, then, Shirley, are you going to help mummy peel the potatoes? Can you get me six out of that basket?’ The tendency of girls to be mildly ahead of boys in their language may be due to the different treatment meted out by parents. Girls are often kept in to help with the chores in many families, but boys are sent out to play games. Mothers, rather than footballs, aid progress in language. And sensitive fathers can help their sons too.
Laura, therefore, showed that severe conceptual deficits can exist alongside a surprisingly developed language ability, while Genie illustrated the opposite – that conceptual ability can outstrip language structure. These case studies suggest that cognitive development cannot provide the definitive key to the acquisition of language structure – even though it is clearly important for meaningful communication.