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From the moment they place two words together (and possibly even before) children seem to realize that language is not just a random conglomeration of words. They express each relationship consistently, so that, for example, in the actor–action relationship, the actor comes first, the action second as in MAMA COME, KITTY PLAY, KATHY GO. Exceptions occur when a wrong rule has been deduced, or when a child is groping towards a rule. And even at the two-word stage, children are creative in their speech. They use combinations of words they have not heard before.
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Patients who have had the whole of the left hemisphere removed are at first without speech. But after a while, they are likely to acquire a limited vocabulary, and be able to comprehend a certain amount, though they always have difficulty in producing speech. The right hemisphere is not useless, however. Patients with right hemisphere damage have difficulty with intonation, and in understanding jokes and metaphors.
Language stages are often loosely linked to physical milestones. The gradual change of cooing to babbling occurs around the time an infant begins to sit up. Children utter single words just before they start to walk. Grammar becomes complex as hand and finger co-ordination develops.
Aphasia is rather different from slips of the tongue, in that it is far from ‘normal’. The name aphasia comes from a Greek word which means literally ‘without speech’, though is widely used in both the UK and USA to mean ‘impaired speech’.
Aphasia covers an enormous range of speech problems. At one end of the range we find people who can only say a single word such as O DEAR, O DEAR, O DEAR, or more usually, a swear word such as DAMN, DAMN, DAMN. One unproved theory is that people who have had a severe stroke sometimes find their speech ‘petrified’ into the word they were uttering as the stroke occurred. At the other end of the scale are people with only occasional wordfinding difficulties – it is not always clear where true aphasia ends and normal slips of the tongue begin.
Arbitrariness means that human languages use neutral symbols. There is no connection between the word DOG and the four-legged animal it symbolizes. It can equally be called UN CHIEN (French), EIN HUND (German), or CANIS (Latin).
Onomatopoeic words such as CUCKOO, POP, BANG, SLURP and SQUISH are exceptions to this. But there are relatively few of these in any language.
Sometimes two items are intentionally blended together in order to create a new word. Lewis Carroll makes Humpty Dumpty explain in Alice Through the Looking Glass that SLITHY means ‘lithe and slimy’, commenting, ‘You see, it’s like a portmanteau – there are two meanings packed up into one word’ – though Lewis Carroll’s made-up words may not be as intentional as they appear. Apparently, he suffered from severe migraine attacks, and many of his strange neologisms are uncannily like the kind of temporary aphasia produced by some migraine sufferers.
Perhaps better examples of intentional blends are SMOG from ‘smoke and fog’, and BRUNCH from ‘breakfast and lunch’. Occasional parallels of this type can be spotted between slips of the tongue and language change.
Hesitation pauses are more promising. There are more of them and they do not have any obvious physical purpose comparable to that of filling one’s lungs with air. Normally they account for one-third to one-half of the time taken up in talking. Speech in which such pausing does not occur is sometimes referred to as ‘inferior’ speech. Either it has been rehearsed beforehand, or the speaker is merely stringing together a number of standard phrases she habitually repeats.
Unfortunately, we tend to over-value fluent, glib speakers who may not be thinking what they are saying, and often condemn a hesitant or stammering speaker who may be thinking very hard.
Laura, therefore, showed that severe conceptual deficits can exist alongside a surprisingly developed language ability, while Genie illustrated the opposite – that conceptual ability can outstrip language structure. These case studies suggest that cognitive development cannot provide the definitive key to the acquisition of language structure – even though it is clearly important for meaningful communication.
It is perhaps inaccurate to speak of crying as a ‘language phase’, because crying seems to be instinctive communication and may be more like an animal call system than a true language. Babies’ pain cries are distinguishable from hunger cries everywhere in the world (Lester and Boukydis 1991). So although crying may help to strengthen the lungs and vocal cords (both of which are needed for speech), crying itself perhaps should not be regarded as part of true language development.
A Frenchman, Marc Dax, read a paper at Montpellier in 1836, pointing out that paralysis of the right side of the body was often associated with loss of speech, while patients whose left side was paralysed could usually talk normally. This suggested that the left hemisphere controlled not only the right side of the body, but speech also. Dax’s hypothesis turned out to be correct. Speech in the majority of humans is the concern of the left, not the right hemisphere.