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“It was exciting to learn facts about our bodies, but it was even more exciting to talk about how we felt about our bodies.”
Our Bodies, Ourselves
Using psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud’s theory of scopophilia, or the pleasure gained through looking, Mulvey theorizes that women’s “to-be-looked-at-ness” in film is a form of male voyeurism. This creates a problem: if the audience is meant to identify with the male subject of the film, how are female viewers supposed to relate to the screen?
Salons provided a respectable space in which women could exhibit their intellectual curiosity. At first, they featured discussions about literary works, then drew both men and women into discourse about political thought and scientific ideas.
The word “salon” was first used in France in the 17th century, derived from the Italian salone , meaning “large hall.” Catherine de Vivonne, the marquise de Rambouillet (1588–1665), was one of the first women to establish a salon, located at her Paris home in a room that became known as the Chambre bleu (Blue Room).
The premier London salon was held in the Mayfair home of Elizabeth Montagu, who had married into a rich family of coal mine and estate owners. Around 1750, she and a number of like-minded women, in particular the wealthy Irish intellectual Elizabeth Vesey, established the Blue Stockings Society. The name derived from the preference among men for blue worsted over black silk for daytime stockings. Its name symbolized a less formal occasion than a courtly gathering.
At the beginning of Sweden’s Age of Liberty (1718–1772), when power shifted from the monarchy to the government, there was increased political and philosophical debate, including calls for greater freedoms for women.
One of the most significant voices in Britain was that of Mary Astell. She argued in her writings that women were just as capable of clear and critical thought as men; their apparent inferiority was the result of male control and limited access to a sound education.
Women were, however, actively involved in the revolutions that won America its independence from Britain in 1783 and convulsed France from 1789. Amid the rallying cries of liberty and citizens’ rights, women also began to demand their own rights. In America, Abigail Adams, the wife of the second US president, called for the founding fathers to “remember the ladies” in the revolutionary changes, while in France playwright and activist Olympe de Gouges published The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen , calling for equal legal rights for women and men.
By around 1750, in Britain and other European countries, groups of intellectual women were coming together in literary “salons.” In these forums, women discussed literature and shared ideas, carving out a space for female experience, the sharing of ideas, and the fostering of women writers and thinkers.
Britain, though less liberal than Sweden, had seen the expression of recognizably feminist theories by the start of the 1700s, notably through the work of Mary Astell.
Some of the earliest feminist writings came out of Sweden in the mid-18th century
In the early 18th century, women were largely regarded as naturally inferior to men on an intellectual, social, and cultural level. This was a deep, long-held belief, reinforced by the teachings of the Christian Church, which defined women as the “weaker vessel.” They were subject to their father’s and, if married, their husband’s control.
The goals of first-wave feminism dominated the feminist agenda in the US and Europe in the mid-19th century, and arose from the same libertarian principles as the drive to abolish slavery. Early feminists (mainly educated, white, middle-class women) demanded the vote, equal access to education, and equal rights in marriage. First-wave feminism lasted until around 1920, by which time most Western countries had granted women the right to vote.
However, “feminism” as a concept did not emerge until 1837, when Frenchman Charles Fourier first used the term féminisme .
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